Posted by : Unknown Sabtu, 05 Juli 2014



INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS

A.Definition
            Language is an acquired habit of systematic vocal activity representing meanings coming from human experiences” or “language is an acquired vocal system for communicating meanings”.
B. Branches
Based on the levels of language there are five major branches of linguistics:
1)      phonetics,
2)      phonemics
3)      morphology,
4)      syntax,
5)      semantics.
C.kinds of linguistics:
1. Synchronic (descriptive linguistics): The study of language at any given of time.
2. Diachronic (historical linguistics): The study of language that deals with changes that occur at a certain period of time. when someone uses the term linguistics, it refers to synchronic linguistics
D. Characteristics of Language:
1)      Language is arbitrary
 no direct connection between  ideas the language deals with and the words or combination of words by which these ideas are expressed
2)      language is sound
Sound is what people utter or hear
3)      Language is systematic
can be represented by a limited number of symbols
4)      Language is a system of system
consists of several levels. Each level is a system in itself
5)      Language is meaningful
The sounds which are produced in a language are connected almost with every fact of human life and communication
6)      Language is conventional
is a part of language system
7)      Language is a system of contrasts
e.g : consonants >< vowels, voiced >< voiceless
8)      Language is creative
By using a finite number of rules a native speaker can generate an infinite number of utterances
9)      Language is unique
languages is different from one language to another
10)   Languages are similar
all languages have many things in common

II
PHONETICS

A. Definition of phonetics
     Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that deal with sound features or qualities and their arrangement into speech sounds or phones.
     A sound is something that can be heard.There are speech sounds (sounds which are used in a language) and non speech sounds (sounds which are not used in a language).
    The examples of speech sounds are: [i, u, n, s, p]. Speech sounds are usually produced by human speech organs (tongue, teeth, lips, palate, vocal cords, larynx, etc.). Not all sounds that are produced by human speech organs are speech sounds. 
 
 B. Branches of Phonetics
1)      Articulatory phonetics (the way howspeech sounds are made by human vocal organs)
2)      Acoustic phonetics (the physical properties of speech sounds as transmitted between mouth and ear)
3)      Auditory phonetics (the perceptual response to speech sounds, as mediated by ear, auditory nerve and brain)

C. Examples of Sound Features
Table: Sound features of English stop consonants
S. F.
P
t
K
b
d
g
Vocalic  
-
-
-
-
-
-
Cons.
+
+
+
+
+
+
Continuant
-
-
-
-
-
-
Strident        
-
-
-
-
-
-
Nasal
-
-
-
-
-
-
Voiced
-
-
-
+
+
+
Anterior 
+
-
-
+
-
-
Coronal
-
+
-
-
+
-

D. Main Types of Speech Sounds
1. Stops (These sounds are produced when the closure of a stop is released gradually rather than abruptly.)
Examples of stops: [p, b, t, d, k, g,]
2. Fricatives
            When an articulator is brought so close to a point of articulation that the air passing between them produces frictional noise, the resulting sound is called fricative or spirant
Examples: [f, v, s, z, š, ž].
3. Sonorant
            When an articulator is moved in a such a way that it neither stops the air steam nor constricts it in such a way to produce noise.Special classes of sonorant are vowels, semivowels, nasals, and laterals.
Examples: [i, a, e, u, o, w, y, m, n, l]
E. The Manners of Sound Articulation
  1. Stops: [p, b, t, d, k, g, ? ]
  2. Fricatives or sibilants: [f, v, ð  , ө  , s, z, š, ž,]
  3. Affricates: [č , j]
  4. Nasals: [ m, n, ň, ŋ ] 
  5. Lateral: [ l ]
  6. Vibrant: [ r ]
  7. Semi-vowel: [ w, y ]

F. The Points of Sound Articulation
1.      Bilabial: [ p, b, m ]
2.      Labio-dental: [ f, v ]
3.      Inter-dental: [ 0 , ð  ]
4.      Alveolar: [ t, d, n, l ]
5.      Alveolar-palatal; [ s, z ]
6.      Palatal: [ j ]
7.      Velar: [ k, g ]
8.      Glottal: [ ?, h ]

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